Linking Words of Cause and Effect

Linking Word	Rule & Pitfalls	Example
Therefore / Consequently / Thus(Formal)	Introduce a result. Use a full stop (.) before them and a comma after. TRAP: Never join two full sentences with just a comma.	It was raining. Therefore, we stayed home. ~~It was raining, therefore, we stayed home.~~ (WRONG)
Because of (Neutral) Due to / Owing to(Formal)	Followed by a Noun, Pronoun, or V-ing. TRAP: Never use a full clause (Subject + Verb) right after them. (Add "the fact that" if you need a clause).	We stayed in because of the rain. He resigned due to feeling tired.
Due to vs. Owing to	Strict grammar rule: Use due to after the verb to be. Use owing to after action verbs.	His failure was due to laziness. He failed owing to laziness.
So(Informal / Neutral)	Joins two clauses. Usually preceded by a comma. TRAP: Never use "Because" and "so" in the same sentence.	I was tired, so I went to bed. ~~Because I was tired, so I went to bed.~~ (WRONG)

Exercise 1: Punctuation & Position

How do we punctuate these linking words when connecting two independent clauses?

Therefore

So

Consequently

Thus

Exercise 2: Noun Phrase vs. Full Clause

What grammatical structure must come immediately after these linking words?

Because

Because of

Due to

Owing to the fact that

Consequently

Exercise 3: Because vs. Because of

Analyze what comes after the gap. Is it a noun phrase or a full clause?

1. The project was delayed the unexpected technical issues.

2. We cancelled the picnic it was pouring with rain all morning.

3. She was promoted her outstanding performance in Q3.

4. the traffic was terrible, I missed my flight.

5. the terrible traffic, I missed my flight.

6. Many species are endangered habitat destruction.

7. I couldn't concentrate they were playing loud music next door.

8. He had to retire early severe back pain.

Exercise 4: So vs. Therefore

Look carefully at the punctuation (commas and full stops) to choose the correct word.

1. The company's profits fell by 20% last year. , management decided to cut bonuses.

2. I forgot my wallet at home, I had to borrow money for lunch.

3. The chemicals are highly toxic. , they must be handled with extreme care.

4. We didn't have enough participants, the workshop was cancelled.

5. The evidence against him was overwhelming. , he was found guilty.

6. She studied every night for a month, she passed the exam easily.

7. He lacked the necessary qualifications. , his application was rejected.

8. The heater broke down, we had to sleep in our winter coats.

Exercise 5: Due to vs. Owing to

Remember the strict rule: "Due to" follows the verb to be. "Owing to" modifies action verbs.

1. His success was entirely his hard work.

2. The match was cancelled a sudden thunderstorm.

3. Her promotion is the fact that she doubled the sales.

4. The train arrived an hour late signal failure.

5. The company's bankruptcy was poor financial management.

6. They failed the inspection low hygiene standards.

7. The cancellation of the flight was fog.

8. We couldn't connect to the server network issues.

Exercise 6: Spot the Mistake

Identify the sentence that is grammatically CORRECT. Watch out for comma splices, double linkers, and wrong grammar structures.

1.

A) It was freezing, therefore I wore a heavy coat. B) It was freezing. Therefore, I wore a heavy coat.

2.

A) Because she was ill, she didn't come to the party. B) Because she was ill, so she didn't come to the party.

3.

A) We stayed indoors due to it was awful weather. B) We stayed indoors due to the awful weather.

4.

A) Because he worked hard, he passed the exam. B) Because of he worked hard, he passed the exam.

5.

A) The internet was down, consequently we couldn't send the emails. B) The internet was down, so we couldn't send the emails.

6.

A) He didn't study for the test. Consequently, he failed. B) He didn't study for the test, consequently, he failed.

7.

A) Owing to the fact that the rain, the match was stopped. B) Owing to the rain, the match was stopped.

8.

A) The streets are flooded because of the heavy storm. B) The streets are flooded because of the storm is heavy.

Exercise 7: Translation Practice

Read the Russian sentence and choose the flawless English translation. Pay attention to structure and punctuation.

1.

Из-за сильного снегопада рейс был отменен.

A) Because of the snow was heavy, the flight was cancelled. B) The flight was cancelled, therefore the heavy snowfall. C) Due to the heavy snowfall, the flight was cancelled.

2.

Он не поставил будильник. Следовательно, он проспал.

A) He didn't set his alarm, consequently he overslept. B) He didn't set his alarm. Consequently, he overslept. C) Because he didn't set his alarm, consequently he overslept.

3.

Так как у меня не было денег, я не смог купить билеты.

A) Because of I had no money, I couldn't buy the tickets. B) Because I had no money, I couldn't buy the tickets. C) Because I had no money, so I couldn't buy the tickets.

4.

Магазин был закрыт, поэтому мы пошли домой.

A) The shop was closed, therefore we went home. B) The shop was closed so, we went home. C) The shop was closed, so we went home.

5.

Его уволили из-за того, что он постоянно опаздывал.

A) He was fired due to he was constantly late. B) He was fired owing to he was constantly late. C) He was fired due to the fact that he was constantly late.

6.

Дороги ремонтируют. Таким образом, ожидаются пробки.

A) The roads are being repaired. Thus, traffic jams are expected. B) The roads are being repaired, thus traffic jams are expected. C) The roads are being repaired. So, traffic jams are expected.

7.

Ошибка была вызвана невнимательностью.

A) The error was due to carelessness. B) The error was owing to carelessness. C) The error was because carelessness.

8.

Поскольку она была уставшей, она отказалась от приглашения.

A) Because she was tired, therefore she declined the invitation. B) Because of being tired, so she declined the invitation. C) Because she was tired, she declined the invitation.

Exercise 8: Mixed Practice (Final Test)

Select the correct word or phrase to complete the sentence.

1. The team lost their best player. , they lost the championship.

2. I didn't want to go out, I ordered pizza and watched a film.

3. a lack of funding, the research project was abandoned.

4. We are unable to process your request a system failure.

5. She speaks French fluently. , she was chosen to represent the company in Paris.

6. They moved to the countryside the high cost of living in the city.

7. He didn't lock his bike. , it was stolen within minutes.

8. we had missed the train, we had to wait two hours for the next one.

9. His bad mood was entirely hunger.

10. The event was a huge success everyone worked so hard.

Cause & Effect Linking Words

Grammar Summary & Common Pitfalls